This chapter is drawn from
a report prepared by Irish Archaeology Consultancy Ltd (IACL 2001) and assesses
the impacts on the cultural heritage for the alternative route options.
The assessment involved a
detailed study of the archaeological, historical and cultural background of the
study area. Sources of information,
organisations, and individuals consulted are presented in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 in
Appendix 5.
From the documentary sources, an initial list of sites and areas of
archaeological and Cultural Heritage potential were compiled. Consultations with statutory and voluntary
bodies highlighted further potential sites such as famine graves, hanging
fields and mass rocks. The public
consultations also drew attention to concerns over known archaeological sites
and areas, which illustrated the local importance of many of the recorded
sites.
As part of this assessment
a low altitude aerial survey was undertaken (26/07/2001) to identify potential
new sites and confirm the position of existing recorded monuments. This was carried out instead of a field
inspection survey as this was not possible due to a number of factors
including; site access restrictions (due to Foot & Mouth disease and the
IFA dispute with the NRA), the size of the scheme and time constraints.
The aerial survey
succeeded in identifying 50 potential archaeological sites and establishing the
location of a number of the larger visible monuments.
All sites were given
individual constraint numbers referring to the cultural classifications
· Archaeological Heritage – Sites listed on the Sites
and Monuments Record. These sites are
split into 2 categories:
NIS – Nationally
Important Sites: includes sites owned by the Minister, sites under preservation
orders, and sites on the Register of Historic Monuments (these sites are also
all Recorded Monuments). There are
three within the study area, potentially affected by the routes:
NIS119 – Franciscan Abbey
at Kilcrea (guardianship of the State)
NIS120 – Graveyard at Kilcrea
(guardianship of the State)
NIS058 – Ecclesiastical
Enclosure at Ballineadig (listed on Register of Historic Monuments)
AH – Sites listed on
the Sites and Monuments Record
· Built Heritage – Architectural or Post medieval
structures not listed in the Record of Monuments & Places. It also includes additional architectural
sites from the Cork Development Plan, and non-statutory protected post-medieval
sites surveyed by the Cork Archaeological Survey. Sites are split into two categories.
CDP – Sites included
within Cork Development Plan
BH – Other built
heritage sites, (included on Sites and Monuments Record)
· AS: Aerial Photographs – Sites identified through
aerial photographs
· AAP: Areas of Archaeological Potential –Areas of
archaeological potential are areas identified through cartographical and
topographical analysis – areas of wetland or marsh, river banks, high altitude
plateaux etc. which are likely to contain upstanding
or sub-surface sites.
· LH: Sites identified through consultation with
Local Historian. Precise location of
these sites has not been verified, and hence are not mapped
A number of sites were
identified from submissions received as part of the Public Consultation. These sites either referred to sites already
identified and listed within various publications, or could not be verified.
The impact on each site,
and hence on each route section, was determined using the significance criteria
presented below. Although all recorded
archaeological monuments are legally protected by the State, a distinction has
been drawn between sites of national importance (such as Kilcrea Abbey and
Graveyard) and sites listed only on the Record of Monuments and Places (such as
a ringfort or fulacht fiadh), as the predicted impact would be deemed more severe on a monument in guardianship
of the state or under a preservation order.
For the purpose of setting
the area within its wider archaeological landscape, a study area corridor of
600m was imposed around each route option, and the additional links.
In assessing impacts, the
following significance criteria have been used:
|
Significance Criteria |
|
|
Severe adverse impact |
Damage or land-take to internationally (World
Heritage Sites) or nationally protected sites or areas (monuments in the
ownership or guardianship of the State, registered monuments, structures
covered under preservation orders or temporary preservation orders). Land-take from a burial site. |
|
Major adverse impact |
Land take or significant change to the setting or
visual amenity of a recorded monument.
Loss of building listed on the Architectural Inventory (or CDP) or
significant impact on its setting.
Land-take from a previously unidentified upstanding monument. |
|
Moderate adverse impact |
Moderate change to the setting or visual amenity
of a Recorded Monument or building listed on the Architectural Inventory (or
CDP). Significant impact on areas of
high archaeological potential, including potential sub-surface sites
identified through aerial surveys (Potential sub-surface sites are those
identified through cropmarks or soil irregularities from aerial survey). Loss of post-medieval buildings or sites
not listed on the CDP, or significant impact on their setting or visual
amenity. |
|
Minor adverse impact |
Minor impact on setting or visual amenity of a
recorded monument or building listed on the Architectural Inventory (or CDP)
– no intrusive view created and no impact on integrity. Minor impact on areas of high
archaeological potential or moderate change to the setting or visual amenity
of post-medieval buildings not listed on the CDP. Land take within close proximity to potential sites identified
through aerial survey. |
|
No impact |
No effect on designated sites, listed structures
or areas of high archaeological potential. |
|
Minor beneficial impact |
Minor improvement in the setting or visual
amenity of a recorded monument or building listed on the Architectural
Inventory (or CDP). |
|
Moderate beneficial impact |
Moderate improvement in the setting of a recorded
monument or building listed on the Architectural Inventory (or CDP). Perceptible improvement in the setting of
other nationally or internationally protected sites or areas. |
The
study area lies in rich tracts of park and fertile agricultural land,
interspersed with valleys and uplands and fed by numerous rivers and smaller
streams. This region once known as the
Barony of Muskerry, lies immediately west of Cork City. Soil quality of this agricultural land,
ideal for both tillage and pasture combined with the abundance of water, has
attracted settlement throughout prehistoric and historic times. As can be seen from Figure
5.1, the proposed routes run through a particularly rich and complex
cultural landscape, containing sites which represent over 6000 years of human
occupation from the Late Neolithic period to the Industrial period of the late
19th and early 20th centuries, including the medieval
urban settlements of Macroom and Ballyvourney.
In all, there are 201 archaeological monuments and 84 built heritage
sites within the study corridors, recorded by the Archaeological Survey of
Cork. Details of the sites and
monuments that occur within the route corridors are presented in sections 5.2.1
– 5.2.5. Background information on the
Cultural Heritage of the region is presented in Appendix
5.
The majority of
prehistoric monuments and sites within the study corridors are from the Bronze
Age, and comprise the following:
58
recorded fulacht fiadh (Bronze Age cooking sites), lie within the study
corridors. These sites survive in the
landscape as low mounds of charcoal-enriched soil mixed with an abundance of
heat-shattered stones. Often they have
been levelled by ploughing activity and appear as burnt spreads in the
landscape. They are usually horseshoe
shaped and located in low-lying areas near a water source, often in
clusters. Radiocarbon dates for this
monument type have generally placed them in the Bronze Age (Brindley and
Lanting, 1990). An additional feature
of these cooking sites was the presence of huts close by. An oval hut associated with a fulacht fiadh
(CO058-033) measuring 5.50m x 4m was uncovered at Gortnatubbrid, south of
Ballyvourney, in 1951.
In Late Neolithic / Early
Bronze Age (3000-1500BC) times, multiple stone circles constructed for
ritualistic or ceremonial functions formed a characteristic group in the
megalithic tradition (Ó’Nualláin 1984).
A distinctive style of stone circle occurs in the southwest of Ireland,
unlike any style elsewhere in either Ireland or Britain. It consists of an uneven number of
freestanding stones, spaced evenly apart to form a ring. The number can range from five to
nineteen. The stones were symmetrically
placed so that one, known as the axial stone, consistently occurred on the
southwest section of the perimeter. O’
Brien (1993) has suggested a Middle/Late Bronze Age date (1500-800BC) for their
use. There are 2 recorded examples
within the study area in the townlands of Carrigaphooca (AH 176) and
Kilboultragh (AH 030).
Stone
rows similarly date to the Bronze Age and were built for ritual, ceremonial or
commemorative purposes. Several
examples also appear to have solar or lunar orientations. They consist of three or more standing
stones positioned closely together in a relatively straight line and are orientated
on a northeast / southwest axis. There is one recorded example within
the study area in the townland of Bealick (AH 079).
A familiar feature of the
rural landscape is the standing stone.
These monuments are very difficult to date, each example having the
potential to belong to a number of different periods, including recent
times. It is likely that those with a
long northeast / southwest axis date to the Bronze Age having close affinity in
orientation to similarly dated stone rows and pairs. They appear to have been erected for a variety of reasons. Certain stones mark prehistoric burials
while others may have had a commemorative or ritual role, or served as boundary
markers or position posts along ancient routeways (Buckley & Sweetman,
1991). Within the study corridors there
are 22 recorded single examples and a further
two examples of paired standing stones.
During the turbulent early
medieval period, roughly circular defensive enclosures known as ringforts were
constructed to protect farmsteads. They
were enclosed by an earthen bank and exterior ditch, and ranged from 25m to 50m
in diameter. The smaller sized and
single banked type (univallate) was more than likely home to the lower ranks of
society while larger examples with more than one bank (bivallate/trivallate)
housed the more powerful kings and lords.
There are 24 recorded ringforts existing within the study corridors
distributed mainly on higher grounds.
Farmsteads were also
enclosed by huge drystone walls as an alternative to the excavated defences of
ringforts. These have the same circular
arrangement as ringforts but the walls can be quite substantial, with examples
occurring where the height reaches up to 3m and the thickness up to 6m
across. There are three recorded
cashels existing within the study corridors, in Ballymakeery (AH 008),
Gortnalicky (AH 026) and Coolnacaheragh (AH 169).
Souterrains, or artificial
underground passages are frequently found within ringforts or cashels and
occasionally occur in ecclesiastical enclosures. They consist of a concealed narrow entrance at ground level
leading into a passage that opens into a single chamber or series of
chambers. They probably functioned as
places of refuge or as storage facilities.
There are 16 recorded examples within the proposed route options.
Within the study area
there is historical and archaeological evidence to indicate a flourishing
ecclesiastical element. The landscape
from the 6th century onwards was dominated by scattered rural
monasteries often surrounded by large circular or oval enclosures. Monastic communities were not attached to
all religious sites, some of the smaller
sites may have consisted of little more than a church and graveyard. Three ecclesiastical enclosures are recorded
within the study corridors in the townlands of Aglish (AH 147), Ballineadig (AH 058) and Kilgobnet (AH
057). The latter of these
translates as ‘Cill Ghobnatan – St. Gobnait’s church’ (O’ Donoghue 1986,
224). The Ballineadig enclosure is
known locally as ‘An Teampall’ and is possibly associated with St. Finbarr.
Ballyvourney village and
environs are associated with St. Gobnait.
Traditionally this saint is linked with Abbán whom we can assign with
reasonable certainty to the 6th century (Ó hÉaluighthe, 1952). Tradition also suggests that both saints had
religious foundations in close proximity to each other. Cill Abbán was located on lower ground in
the townland of Sean-chluain, close to the river Sullane, while Gobnait’s
residence stood approximately one quarter of a mile away on a hill with good
command of the valley eastwards towards Macroom.
Bullaun stones, whose
exact purpose remains unclear, are generally found in association with
religious sites. The Gaelic word
translates as a bowl or round hollow in a stone. There are six recorded examples within the study corridors, three
associated with ecclesiastical enclosures, two with a penitential station and
one with a holy well.
One
example of a cross slab exists in the townland of Killeen (AH 004). These are upright cross carved pillar stones
and are a feature of religious sites.
They appear to date from the 9th and 10th
centuries.
Within the study corridors
there are recorded examples existing of only Later Norman tower houses in the
townlands of Mashanaglass (AH 095) and Carrigaphooca (AH 173), there are no
examples of the typical earlier moated sites.
The Anglo-Normans also built military ringworks, however these are
difficult to identify because they are so similar in surface morphology to
Early Christian ringforts. If the
distribution pattern of moated sites is examined it soon becomes apparent that
there are several surprising gaps in areas that were known to have been
extensively settled by the Anglo Normans.
A major gap exists in south and east Cork. It is possible that some of the ringforts in the study area might
well be this type of monument.
Monasticism continued to
flourish in the medieval period but taking a new form and organisation as
several major Continental monastic orders were introduced during the 12th
century. Ballyvourney, which saw its
first settlement in the early medieval period with the arrival of St. Gobnait,
and the foundation of a nunnery, contains the ruins of a 12th
century Romanesque church which according to tradition stands on the site of
St. Gobnait’s convent. During the
medieval period Ballyvourney developed as a small rural village and is now
recognised as a place of pilgrimage.
The
13th century saw the arrival of a mendicant order of Franciscan
Friars. This order was vowed to poverty
and dedicated to preaching to the general public. The friary at Kilcrea (AH 120) within the blue route option
belongs to this tradition. Located in
the rich valley of the Bride River, it was founded in 1465 by Cormac Laidir
MacCarthaigh, Lord of Muskerry, for the Franciscan Observants. To the west stand the ruins of Kilcrea
Castle which was also constructed by the friary’s founder.
The
late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the development of
large landed estates in the area. The
protestant settlers of the previous century changed the fiefdoms of the
Anglo-Normans into working estates akin to those in England, and numerous
country houses and demesnes were constructed.
These estates were more than often located in areas of better land and
within the study area this is reflected along the Valley of the River Lee and
its tributaries. Forty country houses
exist in various states of preservation within the study area.
The
Macroom area was very badly affected during the famine years. In response to this J.J. Herley advertised
in the ‘Cork Examiner’ seeking “a space
of ground not exceeding one acre…to be used as a graveyard” as all other
burial grounds had no available space due to the high rate of death. This resulted in the establishment of the
paupers’ graveyard at Carrigastyra, Clondrohid, outside the study
corridors. Other famine graves have
been noted by local historians, three of which may fall within the study area (AH
195, LH 006 & LH 003).
There
are 11 burial grounds or graveyards recorded, some of which are still in
occasional use.
Lime
was an important commodity of this area and attesting to this are numerous lime
kilns within the study corridors in varying states of preservation. Lime was extracted from the native limestone
and used primarily as an agricultural fertiliser and also as a base in lime
wash, a type of paint.
There are seven holy wells
within the route corridors.
Thirteen milestones are
still in situ along the local roads.
Full lists of sites
affected are presented in Appendix 5. Summary information is presented below.
Moderate Adverse Impact
The route would exert a moderate impact
on one Area of Archaeological Potential (AAP 7).
Moderate Adverse Impact
The route would exert a moderate impact on one Area
of Archaeological Potential (AAP 7).
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument, a Cashel at Ballymakeery (AH008). Other sites that would be impacted (6) are listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact
The route would exert a major impact on two
recorded monuments (AH020 & AH022) and also on two sites identified from
aerial photographs (AS018 & AS041).
Other sites that would be impacted (10) are listed in Appendix 5, three of which would be affected by the slip
roads/overbridges/underbridges leading to the main carriageway.
Moderate Adverse Impact
The route would exert a moderate impact on one Area
of Archaeological Potential (AAP 10), and a minor impact on one built heritage
site (BH077). Two recorded monuments
(AH037 & AH038) would be moderately affected by the slip
roads/overbridges/underbridges leading to the main carriageway.
Severe/Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument (NIS058), and one site identified from aerial photographs
(AS011). The slip
roads/overbridges/underbridges would also have a major impact on one site, a
battleground (LH012), identified through private consultation. Other sites that would be impacted (12) are
listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact
The route would exert a major impact on 2 recorded
monuments (AH063 & AH064). Other
sites that would be impacted (8 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would have a moderate impact on one Area
of Archaeological Potential (AAP 7).
The realignment of the existing N22, on the approach to the roundabout
would have a major impact on a Holy Well (AH001) in
Slieveragh.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would have a moderate impact on one Area
of Archaeological Potential (AAP 7)
only.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on 3 recorded
monuments (AH162, AH163 & AH165).
Other sites that would be impacted (5 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Severe Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument (AH195). Other sites that
would be impacted (7 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on 2
recorded monuments (AH117 & AH031).
For further details, see Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one built
heritage site listed in the Cork Development Plan (CDP022). Other sites that would be impacted (3 further
sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on two
recorded monuments (AH082 and AH080).
Other sites that would be impacted (6 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument (AH179). Other sites
that would be impacted (6 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on one area
of potential (AAP19). Other sites that
would be impacted (4 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on one built heritage site (BH058)
and one area of potential (AAP20).
Other sites that would be impacted (6 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on one area
of potential (AAP18), and a minor impact on one built heritage site (BH018).
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on two
recorded monuments (AH064 & AH065), one built heritage site (BH020) and one
area of potential (AAP18). The route would have a minor impact on one other
site (BH083). Further detail is
presented in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument (AH082) and one built heritage site listed on the Cork
Development Plan (CDP024). Other sites
that would be impacted (5 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on four
recorded monuments (AH084, AH124, AH142 & AH143). The slip roads/overbridges/underbridges would also have a major
impact on one site, a fulacht fiadh (AH196) in Killinadrish. Other sites that would be impacted (15
further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument (AH147), and one aerial survey site (AS041). Other sites that would be impacted (15
further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on one
recorded monument (AH203), and four sites identified from aerial photographs
(AS020, AS050, AS051 & AS049).
Other sites that would be impacted (14 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The slip roads/overbridges/underbridges would have
a major impact on one recorded monument (AH111). The main carriageway would also exert a moderate impact on one
built heritage site (BH036). Further
details are presented in Appendix 5.
Major Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a major impact on two
recorded monuments (NIS119 & NIS120), and one site identified from aerial
photographs (AS013). Other sites that
would be impacted (10 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on one area
of potential (AAP18).
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on four
recorded monuments (AH020, AH022, AH024 & AH069) and a minor impact on one
recorded monument (AH067). Further
details are listed in Appendix 5
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on one
recorded monument (AH211) and on an area of archaeological potential
(AAP12). The slip
roads/overbridges/underbridges would also have a minor impact on one recorded
monument (AH205). Further details are
listed in Appendix 5.
Moderate Adverse Impact.
The route would exert a moderate impact on one site
identified from aerial photographs (AS016) and on an area of archaeological
potential (AAP19). Other sites that
would be impacted (3 further sites) are listed in Appendix 5.
No Impact.
General mitigation would include a full field
inspection of the entire route, to determine the exact location, extent and
condition of all recorded monuments, built heritage sites, potential
archaeological monuments, local history sites and areas of archaeological
potential.
River surveys of the river crossings are
recommended to ascertain the likelihood of potential archaeological sites or
ancient fording points along the river-banks.
This may include underwater surveys of the larger rivers, such as the
River Lee and River Laney, and may also involve topographical, geophysical and
metal detecting surveys.
All areas of archaeological potential that exist
within the route corridor should be inspected and stripped of topsoil, in the
presence of a qualified archaeologist, in advance of construction work. A programme of strategic test excavation to
establish nature and extent of known or suspected archaeological deposits is
recommended. The locations of the
excavations would be determined in consultation with the NRA project
archaeologist.
A programme of archaeological monitoring of all
construction works should be undertaken along the entire length of the selected
route under licence to Dúchas – The Heritage Service, with provision for full
excavation of any further archaeological features and deposits which may be
exposed.
It is also recommended that, once the exact extent
of the built heritage sites are known, a programme of landscaping be
undertaken, where appropriate, to lessen the visual and noise impact on those
sites close to the route.
West of Macroom, the Green/Link/Yellow route is preferred over the
Green or Yellow routes as fewer sites would sustain a major or moderate
impact. The Green/Link/Yellow route
exerts a major adverse impact on one recorded monuments, coming within 8m of
the site. It would have a moderate
adverse impact on the setting or possible associated archaeology of eight
recorded monuments, including Kilgobnet ecclesiastical enclosure (which
contains three monuments) and Mount Massey Country House, one aerial survey
site and three areas of archaeological potential. Minor adverse impacts would be imposed on one recorded monument
and on one aerial survey site. The
Green route would exert a major adverse impact on 3 Recorded monuments, and 2
potential archaeological sites, a moderate impact on 10 sites or areas of
potential, and a minor impact on six sites.
The Yellow route would have a major impact on five Recorded Monuments, a
moderate impact on four areas of archaeological potential and six other sites. It would also have a minor impact on four
sites, one a recorded monument, and three identified through the aerial survey.
To the west of Macroom, the routes in order of preference are as
follows:
· Green/Link/Yellow route– Preferred
· Green route
· Yellow route – Least Preferred
Between Macroom and
Ballincollig, the Green route and the Green/Link/Red route exert a similar
impact on the cultural heritage of the area, although the Green /Link/Red route is marginally preferred. The selection of the Green/Link/Red route as the preferred route would depend on suitable
mitigation measures designed to minimise impact on 4 Recorded monuments,
in particular Ovens Caves which are known to contain prehistoric material
(Nodes 14-16). There would be a total
of four major, twenty moderate and ten minor adverse impacts on the
archaeological resources along this route option. This route would be preferable over the Green route, as although
the Green route would have an adverse impact on fewer sites, it would include
two additional major impacts, one of which would be an ecclesiastical enclosure
at Ballineadig (NIS058). In total this
route would adversely impact on 25 sites and 4 areas of archaeological
potential. Of these, five would be
major, 17 would be moderate, and 7 would be minor.
The Green/Link/Red route
is preferred over the Green, Yellow and Blue routes. This is due in part to the impact from the Green and Yellow route
on built heritage sites, and the Blue route on Kilcrea Abbey and graveyard. The route is also preferred over the Red
route. Although fewer monuments would
be directly impacted by this route, the number of monuments and potential
monuments which occur within 150m of the route, outweighs those of the other routes between Macroom and
Ballincollig. This suggests a dense
archaeological landscape within the red route, and a greater potential for
sub-surface archaeological sites.
To the east of Macroom,
the routes in order of preference are as follows:
· Green/Link/Red route – Preferred
· Green route
· Yellow/Link6/Blue route
· Yellow route
· Red route
·
Yellow/Link4/Blue
route
·
Blue route – Least
preferred.